Allergy Also called: Hypersensitivity

Allergy

Also called: Hypersensitivity

 

An allergy is a reaction of your immune system to something that does not bother most other people. People who have allergies often are sensitive to more than one thing. Substances that often cause reactions are

Pollen

Dust mites

Mold spores
Pet dander
Food
Insect stings

Medicines

How do you get allergies? Scientists think both genes and the environment have something to do with it. Normally, your immune system fights germs. It is your body's defense system. In most allergic reactions, however, it is responding to a false alarm.

Allergies can cause a runny nose, sneezing, itching, rashes, swelling or asthma. Symptoms vary. Although allergies can make you feel bad, they usually won't kill you. However, a severe reaction called anaphylaxis is life-threatening.

NIH: National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases

Your Family History

Your Family History

Your family history holds key information about your past and clues to your future health. Many of your physical traits (such as eye color, hair color, and height) are inherited. So, too, are risks for certain genetic conditions and health problems such as heart disease, diabetes, and some cancers. You may have noticed that some of your relatives are healthier and live longer than other relatives. You may also have noticed that some relatives have the same health problems. By collecting your family’s health history, you can learn what health problems you may be at increased risk for in the future and how to reduce your risks. For instance, people at increased risk for heart disease may be able to reduce their risk through not smoking, regular exercise and diet. Finding out your family history can benefit both you and your relatives… and it can be fun too!

How to collect a family history

You can collect your family history by talking to your relatives. Start with your parents if they are living. Older relatives are often good sources of information. Some relatives may not want to share their medical histories or they may not know their family history. However, whatever information you discover will be helpful. Vacations, holidays and family reunions can be good times to collect this information. As each generation ages, important information can be forgotten or lost – so now is the time to start your project! If you are adopted, you may be able to learn some of your family history through the parent(s) that adopted you or from adoption agency records.

Additional Sources of Information
Check whether your family has existing family trees, charts, listings of family members. Information may be recorded in baby books, birthday date books, or a family bible. Medical records are helpful but may be harder to obtain. There are offices in each state that have records of births, marriages and deaths. You can call the "County Clerk" office where you live (look in the "Government" section of the phone book) to find out how to get copies of these records. In addition, there are websites that have helpful resources for putting together family trees that you can find by searching for “genealogy.” It is important to collect accurate information, so verify the medical history whenever possible.
How to record your family history

One way to record a family history is by drawing a family tree called a “pedigree”. Instructions for drawing a family tree can be found by clicking here. You can also create and keep a written list of this information without drawing a pedigree. Either way, begin by writing down the medical and health information on:
Yourself
Your brothers and sisters
Your children
Your parents

Then go back a generation at a time. Include:
Nieces and nephews
Aunts and uncles
Grandparents
Cousins

For each relative, try to write down as many of these items as possible:

Age or date of birth (and, for all family members who have passed on, age at death and cause of death). When the information is unavailable, write down your best guess (for example, “40’s”).

Medical problems such as:

Cancer

Heart disease

Diabetes

Asthma

Mental illness

High blood pressure

Stroke

Kidney disease

Alcoholism

Others

Note the ages at which the conditions occurred. Did Uncle Pete have his heart attack at age 42 or age 88? Did your mother develop diabetes in childhood or as an adult?

Birth defects such as spina bifida, cleft lip, heart defects, others.

Learning problems, mental retardation.

Vision loss/hearing loss at a young age (remember to record the age it began).

For family members with known medical problems, jot down if they smoked, their diet and exercise habits, and if they were overweight. (for example, you could note that your brother John, who had a heart attack at age 40, weighs 300 lbs and smokes 2 packs a day).

After you draw your family tree, above your mother’s side of the family tree write down where her family members came from (for example, England, Germany, Africa etc.); then do the same for your father’s side of the family. This information can be helpful because some genetic health problems occur more often in specific ethnic groups.

What to do after you have completed your family tree

You should keep your family tree in a safe place and update it every couple of years (or update it at a regular family gathering, such as Thanksgiving). You can share a copy with your doctor, who may find it helpful in caring for your health. If you have concerns about your family history, you may wish to see a genetic counselor. To find genetic counselors in your area, contact the National Society of Genetic Counselors at www.nsgc.org; or the American Society of Human Genetics at www.ashg.org. To find more information about the medical conditions present in your family and about support groups, contact the Genetic Alliance at www.geneticalliance.org.

Genetic Counseling

Genetic Counseling

If you are expecting a baby or planning to have a baby, your doctor can run many tests to help assess the health of both you and your baby. Your doctor may also refer you for genetic counseling. Genetic counseling provides information and support to people who have, or may be at risk for, genetic disorders. A genetics professional meets with you

to discuss genetic risks. You may follow up with genetic testing.

There are many reasons to seek genetic counseling. You may consider it if you

Have or are concerned you have an inherited disorder

Are pregnant or planning to be pregnant after age 35

Already have a child with a genetic disorder or birth defect

Have had two or more pregnancy losses or a baby who died

Have had ultrasound or screening tests that suggest a possible problem

Occupational Health

Occupational Health

Occupational health problems occur at work or because of the kind of work you do. These problems can include

Cuts, broken bones, sprains and strains, or amputations

Repetitive motion disorders

Hearing problems caused by exposure to noise

Vision problems or even blindness

Illness caused by breathing, touching or ingesting unsafe substances

Illness caused by exposure to radiation

Exposure to germs in healthcare settings

Good job safety and prevention practices can reduce your risk of these problems. Try to stay fit, reduce stress, set up your work area properly, and use the right equipment and gear.

Neurologic Diseases

Neurologic Diseases

Neurologic diseases are disorders of the brain, spinal cord and nerves throughout your body. Together they control all the workings of the body. When something goes wrong with a part of your nervous system, you can have trouble moving, speaking, swallowing, breathing or learning. You can also have problems with your memory, senses or mood.

There are more than 600 neurologic diseases. Major types include

Diseases caused by faulty genes, such as Huntington's disease and muscular dystrophy

Problems with the way the nervous system develops, such as spina bifida

Degenerative diseases, where nerve cells are damaged or die, such as Parkinson's disease and Alzheimer's disease

Diseases of the blood vessels that supply the brain, such as stroke

Injuries to the spinal cord and brain

Seizure disorders, such as epilepsy

Cancer, such as brain tumors

infections, such as meningitis

Brain Cancer Also called: Glioma, Meningioma

Brain Cancer

Also called: Glioma, Meningioma

There are two main types of brain cancer. Primary brain cancer starts in the brain. Metastatic brain cancer starts somewhere else in the body and moves to the brain. Brain tumors can be benign, with no cancer cells, or malignant, with cancer cells that grow quickly.

Brain tumors can cause many symptoms. Some of the most common are

Headaches, usually worse in the morning

Nausea and vomiting

Changes in your ability to talk, hear or see

Problems with balance or walking

Problems with thinking or memory

Muscle jerking or twitching

Numbness or tingling in arms or legs

No one knows the exact causes of brain tumors. Doctors can seldom explain why one person develops a brain tumor and another does not.

NIH: National Cancer Institute

Multiple Sclerosis Also called: MS

Multiple Sclerosis

Also called: MS

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a nervous system disease that affects your brain and spinal cord. It damages the myelin sheath, the material that surrounds and protects your nerve cells. This damage slows down or blocks messages between your brain and your body, leading to the symptoms of MS. They can include

Visual disturbances

Muscle weakness

Trouble with coordination and balance

Sensations such as numbness, prickling, or "pins and needles"

Thinking and memory problems

No one knows what causes MS. It may be an autoimmune disease, which happens when your body attacks itself. Multiple sclerosis affects women more than men. It often begins between the ages of 20 and 40. Usually, the disease is mild, but some people lose the ability to write, speak or walk. There is no cure for MS, but medicines may slow it down and help control symptoms. Physical and occupational therapy may also help.

NIH: National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke

Finding the Words: New Brain Stimulation Technique Shows Promise for People with Aphasia

Finding the Words: New Brain Stimulation Technique Shows Promise for People with Aphasia

A stroke, the medical term for when blood and nutrients are cut off from the brain, can have a devastating effect on a person’s ability to communicate. Words that once came naturally for even simple objects before the stroke—such as a chair, a pen, or an apple—are suddenly difficult if not impossible to retrieve. Although some people may recover their language skills in time, for others, the effects can be chronically debilitating.

Such differences in patient outcomes have scientists from the University of South Carolina delving deeper into this language disorder—called aphasia—which results when language centers of the brain are damaged by stroke, head injury, or other causes. In new NIDCD-funded research, they’ve demonstrated not only how important the location of the brain damage is in predicting how well a person will respond to aphasia therapy, they are also investigating a new method for stimulating brain-damaged regions in people with aphasia, in hopes of increasing brain plasticity and perhaps improving word recall.

In research published in the September 15, 2010, issue of the Journal of Neuroscience, Julius Fridriksson, Ph.D., studied 26 patients who experienced chronic aphasia after suffering a stroke that damaged the brain’s left hemisphere, where the language centers are found. He wanted to observe whether treating patients for anomia, an impairment associated with aphasia in which a person has difficulty naming certain objects, can help increase neural activity in key regions of the brain. (Although there are several types of aphasia and each has a variety of symptoms, anomia is a symptom that all people with aphasia have in common.) He also wanted to learn if damage to certain regions of the brain had a particularly negative effect on the successfulness of a patient’s treatment.

At the start of the study, brain scans were taken using structural magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) to help pinpoint the location of each participant’s brain lesions. Functional MRI was then used to record any changes in brain activity before, during, and after two weeks of standard anomia treatment. During the treatment phase, two types of cues —phonological or semantic—were given for one week at a time to participants to help them remember the names of pictured objects. For example, for the phonological treatment, the researcher might show a picture of a pen and say “It starts with puh” or “It rhymes with hen.” A cue during the semantic treatment might be, “It’s something that you use to write with.” If after several cues a participant still could not name the object, he or she was given the word and asked to repeat it over and over.

Upon completion of the procedure, Dr. Fridriksson noticed that some participants showed great improvement in their ability to name objects while others showed little change. Participants whose lesions were located in areas specializing in word retrieval and phonological processing, toward the back of the left hemisphere, experienced significantly poorer results than participants whose lesions were located elsewhere. He also found that improvement in naming ability was closely tied to brain activation in regions toward the front as well as farther back in the brain’s left hemisphere.

“In the past, people have always wondered how the brain mediates recovery. Is it the whole brain, is it the right hemisphere that picks up the slack, or is it the rest of the damaged left hemisphere that changes to promote recovery?” said Dr. Fridriksson. “And what this study clearly shows is for those patients who do well in treatment, the damaged hemisphere changes and supports that recovery.”

With this in mind, Dr. Fridriksson and his team wondered if they could do anything to further spark these damaged yet functioning brain regions into action.

In a paper that appeared in the June 2010 issue of Stroke, Julie Baker, Ph.D., who was working on her dissertation under Dr. Fridriksson, used transcranial direct-current stimulation (tDCS)—a low-current stimulation technique that is safe, non-invasive, and barely detectable to the wearer —to attempt to further stimulate areas of the brain that are already activated during word retrieval. Studying 10 patients with aphasia, Dr. Baker compared tDCS to a placebo technique while participants were engaged in a computer program to improve their ability to name objects. For five consecutive days, 20 minutes per day, participants would receive either the real tDCS or the placebo as they took part in the computerized treatment. After a one-week break, they resumed with 5 more days of treatment and the other stimulation technique, real or placebo. Dr. Baker then compared the number of words participants could name before and after treatment.

Dr. Baker found that, for all of the patients enrolled in the study, the numbers of correctly identified names following tDCS stimulation were higher than those following the placebo, not only for words they had worked on during the treatment, but for other words as well.

Dr. Fridriksson says that the stimulation technique could possibly be customized to address a patient’s needs, no matter where the lesion is located and no matter what type of aphasia he or she may have.

“Animal model studies show clearly that if you apply low-current stimulation to neural tissue it increases the amount of neurotransmitters that promote brain plasticity,” he said. “I don’t think there’s any reason why this brain stimulation should be specific to anomia. I think you could apply it to pretty much any therapy for aphasia.”

Dr. Fridriksson acknowledges that more clinical research is needed to understand how tDCS might be used to treat aphasia, and his plans are to apply for a grant to conduct a clinical trial on the technique. In the meantime, he’s also working to determine the ideal length of time to stimulate the patient during treatment. He is also using fMRI to determine how, specifically, tDCS activates the brain in people with aphasia.

Arthritis

Arthritis
 

If you feel pain and stiffness in your body or have trouble moving around, you might have arthritis. Most kinds of arthritis cause pain and swelling in your joints. Joints are places where two bones meet, such as your elbow or knee. Over time, a swollen joint can become severely damaged. Some kinds of arthritis can also cause problems in your organs, such as your eyes or skin.

One type of arthritis, osteoarthritis, is often related to aging or to an injury. Other types occur when your immune system, which normally protects your body from infection, attacks your body's own tissues. Rheumatoid arthritis is the most common form of this kind of arthritis. Juvenile rheumatoid arthritis is a form of the disease that happens in children. Infectious arthritis is an infection that has spread from another part of the body to the joint.

NIH: National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases

Clinical Trials

Clinical Trials

Clinical trials are research studies that test how well new medical approaches work in people. Each study answers scientific questions and tries to find better ways to prevent, screen for, diagnose or treat a disease. Clinical trials may also compare a new treatment to a treatment that is already available.

Every clinical trial has a protocol, or action plan, for conducting the trial. The plan describes what will be done in the study, how it will be conducted, and why each part of the study is necessary. Each study has its own rules about who can participate. Some studies need volunteers with a certain disease. Some need healthy people. Others want just men or just women.

In the United States, an independent committee of physicians, statisticians and members of the community must approve and monitor the protocol. They make sure that the risks are small and are worth the potential benefits.

NIH: National Institutes of Health

Anatomy and Function of the Normal Lung

Anatomy and Function of the Normal Lung
To understand your lung condition, you should be familiar with how the lungs normally work.
How do the lungs normally work?

The chest contains two lungs, one lung on the right side of the chest, the other on the left side of the chest. Each lung is made up of sections called lobes. The lung is soft and protected by the ribcage. The purposes of the lungs are to bring oxygen (abbreviated O2), into the body and to remove carbon dioxide (abbreviated CO2). Oxygen is a gas that provides us energy while carbon dioxide is a waste product or "exhaust" of the body.
How do the lungs protect themselves?

The lungs have several ways of protecting themselves from irritants. First, the nose acts as a filter when breathing in, preventing large particles of pollutants from entering the lungs. If an irritant does enter the lung, it will get stuck in a thin layer of mucus (also called sputum or phlegm) that lines the inside of the breathing tubes. An average of 3 ounces of mucus are secreted onto the lining of these breathing tubes every day. This mucus is "swept up" toward the mouth by little hairs called cilia that line the breathing tubes. Cilia move mucus from the lungs upward toward the throat to the epiglottis. The epiglottis is the gate, which opens allowing the mucus to be swallowed. This occurs without us even thinking about it. Spitting up sputum is not "normal" and does not occur unless the individual has chronic bronchitis or there is an infection, such as a chest cold, pneumonia or an exacerbation of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD).

Another protective mechanism for the lungs is the cough. A cough, while a common event, is also not a normal event and is the result of irritation to the bronchial tubes. A cough can expel mucus from the lungs faster than cilia.

The last of the common methods used by the lungs to protect themselves can also create problems. The airways in the lungs are surrounded by bands of muscle. When the lungs are irritated, these muscle bands can tighten, making the breathing tube narrower as the lungs try to keep the irritant out. The rapid tightening of these muscles is called bronchospasm. Some lungs are very sensitive to irritants. Bronchospams may cause serious problems for people with COPD and they are often a major problem for those with asthma, because it is more difficult to breathe through narrowed airways.
How does air get into the body?

To deliver oxygen to the body, air is breathed in through the nose, mouth or both. The nose is the preferred route since it is a better filter than the mouth. The nose decreases the amount of irritants delivered to the lung, whilst also heating and adding moisture (humidity) into the air we breathe. When large amounts of air are needed, the nose is not the most efficient way of getting air into the lungs and therefore mouth breathing may be used. Mouth breathing is commonly needed when exercising.

After entering the nose or mouth, air travels down the trachea or "windpipe". The trachea is the tube lying closest to the neck. Behind the trachea is the esophagus or "food tube". When we inhale air moves down the trachea and when we eat food moves down the esophagus. The path air and food take is controlled by the epiglottis, a gate that prevents food from entering the trachea. Occasionally, food or liquid may enter the trachea resulting in choking and coughing spasms.

The trachea divides into one left and one right breathing tube, and these are termed bronchi. The left bronchus leads to the left lung and the right bronchus leads to the right lung. These breathing tubes continue to divide into smaller and smaller tubes called bronchioles. The bronchioles end in tiny air sacs called alveoli. Alveoli, which means "bunch of grapes" in Italian, look like clusters of grapes attached to tiny breathing tubes. There are over 300 million alveoli in normal lungs. If the alveoli were opened and laid out flat, they would cover the area of a doubles tennis court. Not all alveoli are in use at one time, so that the lung has many to spare in the event of damage from disease, infection or surgery.
Which muscles help in the breathing process?

Many different muscles are used in breathing. The largest and most efficient muscle is the diaphragm. The diaphragm is a large muscle that lies under the lungs and separates them from the organs below, such as the stomach, intestines, liver, etc. As the diaphragm moves down or flattens, the ribs flare outward, the lungs expand and air is drawn in. This process is called inhalation or inspiration. As the diaphragm relaxes, air leaves the lungs and they spring back to their original position. This is called exhalation or expiration. The lungs, like balloons, require energy to blow up but no energy is needed to get air out.




The other muscles used in breathing are located between the ribs and certain muscles extending from the neck to the upper ribs. The diaphragm, muscles between the ribs and one of the muscles in the neck called the scalene muscle are involved in almost every breath we take. If we need more help expanding our lungs, we "recruit" other muscles in the neck and shoulders. In some conditions, such as emphysema, the diaphragm is pushed down so that it no longer works properly. This means that the other muscles must work extra hard because they aren’t as efficient as the diaphragm. When this happens, patients may experience breathlessness or shortness of breath.

COPD (Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease)

COPD (Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease)


Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) makes it hard for you to breathe. Coughing up mucus is often the first sign of COPD. Chronic bronchitis and emphysema are common COPDs.

Your airways branch out inside your lungs like an upside-down tree. At the end of each branch are small, balloon-like air sacs. In healthy people, both the airways and air sacs are springy and elastic. When you breathe in, each air sac fills with air like a small balloon. The balloon deflates when you exhale. In COPD, your airways and air sacs lose their shape and become floppy, like a stretched-out rubber band.

Cigarette smoking is the most common cause of COPD. Breathing in other kinds of irritants, like pollution, dust or chemicals, may also cause or contribute to COPD. Quitting smoking is the best way to avoid developing COPD.

Treatment can make you more comfortable, but there is no cure.

NIH: National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute

What to do in a Medical Emergency Diabetic Emergencies

What to do in a Medical Emergency
Diabetic Emergencies



It is estimated that more than 20 million people in the United States have diabetes, with an estimated six million people being unaware they have it. The best way to prevent diabetic emergencies is to effectively manage the disease through making health food choices, exercise and frequently checking blood glucose levels.

Diabetics may experience life-threatening emergencies from too much or too little insulin in their bodies. Too much insulin can cause a low sugar level (hypoglycemia), which can lead to insulin shock. Not enough insulin can cause a high level of sugar (hyperglycemia), which can cause a diabetic coma.

Symptoms of insulin shock include:
Weakness, drowsiness
Rapid pulse
Fast breathing
Pale, sweaty skin
Headache, trembling
Odorless breath
Numbness in hands or feet
Hunger

Symptoms of diabetic coma include:
Weak and rapid pulse
Nausea
Deep, sighing breaths
Unsteady gait
Confusion
Flushed, warm, dry skin
Odor of nail polish or sweet apple
Drowsiness, gradual loss of consciousness

First aid for both conditions is the same:
If the person is unconscious or unresponsive, call 911 or your local emergency number immediately.
If an unconscious person exhibits life-threatening conditions, place the person horizontally on a flat surface, check breathing, pulse and circulation, and administer CPR while waiting for professional medical assistance
If the person is conscious, alert and can assess the situation, assist him or her with getting sugar or necessary prescription medication.
If the person appears confused or disoriented, give him or her something to eat or drink and seek immediate medical assistance.

New national study reveals that nearly one in three adolescents participated in a violent behavior over the past year

New national study reveals that nearly one in three adolescents participated in a violent behavior over the past year
Prevalence of violent behaviors associated with factors such as academic performance and family income

A new national study reveals that nearly 7.8 million adolescents aged 12 to 17, almost one third (30.9 percent), participated in any of three violent behaviors over the past year. The study, conducted by the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA), showed that 22.6 percent of adolescents reported having participated in a serious fight at school or work; 16.1 percent reported involvement in group-against-group fighting; and 7.5 percent reported attacking others with intent to seriously hurt them.

Overall, male adolescents were more likely to engage in violent behaviors than females (34.6 percent versus 27.0 percent), but the study found other demographic and socioeconomic factors were also associated with an adolescent’s risk for violent behaviors.

One of the key factors seems to be family income. Adolescents from families with higher annual incomes are less likely to engage in violent behaviors than those from lower income families. For example, adolescents from families with annual incomes of $75,000 or more are far less likely to be involved in violent behaviors than adolescents from families with annual incomes of less than $20,000 (24.6 percent versus 40.5 percent).

The study also indicates that academic performance is also associated with risk for participating in violent behaviors measured. Adolescents with “A” averages in school were less than half as likely to be involved in violent behaviors as adolescents earning “D” averages in school (17.7 percent versus 53.8 percent).

Low academic performance even seems to transcend the association with family income as a risk factor for violent behaviors. Among adolescents with “D” averages, those coming from families with annual incomes of $75,000 had nearly identical rates of violent behaviors as those who came from families with annual incomes of less than $20,000 (54.5 percent versus 55.9 percent).

“Youth violence has long lasting, devastating consequences --the alarming rates of violence found by this study reinforce the importance of our efforts to prevent violence.” said SAMHSA Administrator Pamela S. Hyde, J.D. "These rates also underscore the need to treat the psychological trauma that can result from youth exposure to violence. Community leaders and school officials can use this vital information in making decisions about creating safe learning environments, and effective treatment programs which can rebuild young lives and promote safer communities.”

Violent Behaviors and Family Income among Adolescents is based on data from the 2004 to 2008 SAMHSA National Survey on Drug Use and Health which involve interviews with 112,885 adolescents throughout the nation. This study was done as part of SAMHSA’s strategic initiative on data, outcomes, and quality – an effort to create an integrated data strategy that informs policy makers and service providers on the nature and scope of behavioral health issues.

Tips For Treating Viruses, Fungi, and Parasites

Tips For Treating Viruses, Fungi, and Parasites

Every person encounters infectious organisms throughout the day in the air, in soil and water, in foods, and on surfaces everywhere. Fortunately, your child’s immune system is capable of resisting most of these organisms, keeping her healthy. When these organisms become a problem and cause an infection, your pediatrician has a number of medicines that can help your child get better.

Antibacterials are the prescription drugs with which parents are probably most familiar. Nearly every parent has had the experience of giving their child a course of antibacterials for an ear infection or strep throat. Most can name some of the most common antibacterials—penicillin, amoxicillin, tetracycline—that have helped their youngster fight off bacterial infections. Although your child has probably been given antibacterials more often than other types of infection-fighting prescription medicines, drugs are also available to fight certain childhood diseases caused by
Viruses
Fungi (yeasts and molds)
Parasites

Remember, as important as antibacterials are, they are useful only against infections caused by bacteria. For illnesses caused by other kinds of germs, antibacterials simply will not help your child get better. They can actually add risks because of the possible side effects that all medicines have. At the same time, inappropriately used medicines can contribute to the growing problem of antibiotic resistance.
Antiviral Medicines

Every child gets a viral illness from time to time. Many viral infections affect the respiratory tract, which includes the nose, throat, and breathing passages where they can cause the common cold, the flu, a sore throat, and sinusitis. Viruses also can cause more serious illnesses such as acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), hepatitis, and rabies. Because immunizations are available to protect your child against some viral infections (eg, chickenpox, polio), make sure she is fully protected by all the vaccines recommended by the American Academy of Pediatrics.

Antiviral drugs are relatively recent developments, but an increasing number of these virus-fighting drugs are now available. They are made to prevent infection or shorten the duration of infections by preventing the virus from spreading, although they may not kill viruses that already exist. These medicines aren’t appropriate for all viral infections—if your child has the common cold, for instance, simply let it run its course. Your pediatrician will be able to tell you when prescription antiviral drugs may be needed.

Unlike broad-spectrum antibiotics, which are often useful against a wide range of bacterial organisms, antiviral medicines tend to be more specific and attack particular viruses. Here are a few examples of antiviral drugs sometimes prescribed for children.
Acyclovir is a medicine that can be used to treat chickenpox, as well as the symptoms associated with herpes infections that may affect the skin, eyes, mouth, genitals, or brain. Acyclovir can ease the discomfort and speed up the healing of herpes sores, but it will not completely kill the virus. The herpes simplex virus will stay dormant in the body and can cause symptoms again in the future.
Amantadine is among several antiviral medications that can be used to treat and prevent the flu. These medicines are most useful when started soon after your child’s flu symptoms begin. In general, the medicine should be started within the first 2 days of the illness. Amantadine is only effective in treating one type of flu virus, influenza A.
Ribavirin and interferon are antiviral drugs sometimes prescribed for adults who develop chronic hepatitis. Their use in children has been limited.

Other medicines, called antiretroviral drugs, are used to combat infections caused by a particular type of virus called a retrovirus. The most widely known retrovirus, human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), is responsible for AIDS.

Keep in mind that even though viral illnesses should not be treated with antibacterials, bacterial infections sometimes occur as a secondary complication of a viral disease. In those cases, antibacterials can be used to treat the bacterial infection.
Antifungal Medicines

Fungal infections are caused by microscopic plants whose spores become airborne and are breathed in by children. They can also enter the body through a cut in the skin. When these spores are inhaled, they may settle in the lungs and begin to multiply and form clusters. Eventually they make their way into the bloodstream and travel throughout the body. Like many infectious organisms, they can cause serious illnesses in children whose immune systems are already weakened by another disease such as cancer or AIDS.

You’re probably most familiar with fungi such as mushrooms, yeast, mold, and mildew. Some fungi can live in the body and never cause any sickness. But others cause diseases, including common infections such as ringworm of the skin, hair, and nails; athlete’s foot; jock itch; and thrush or yeast infections (candidiasis).

Many drugs can fight these fungal infections. They’re often available in a topical form that can be applied directly on the skin. Some are over-the-counter medicines, while others must be prescribed by your doctor.

For serious fungal infections, pediatricians may select a medication called amphotericin B or newer antifungal drugs called azoles. Two of the most widely used azoles are fluconazole and itraconazole. Some prescription antifungal drugs are not licensed for use in children, largely because little research has been done with youngsters. These medicines should be used with care and your pediatrician’s guidance because they may have serious side effects.

Although over-the-counter antifungal products are considered safe when used according to the instructions on the label, it’s always a good idea to talk with your pediatrician before treating your child with these medicines.
Antiparasitic Medicines

Parasites can cause childhood infections. In some parts of the world, they are a common cause of illness and death. In the Western world, adults and children often contract parasitic diseases while traveling to tropical regions of the world where these illnesses are most prevalent, such as rural Central and South America, Asia, and Africa.

Some parasites are so tiny that they can’t be seen except under the microscope, while others are large enough to be viewed very easily with the naked eye. Most live in food, water, and soil. When they’re transmitted to your child, often when she consumes contaminated food or water, her immune system can successfully fight off many of them. Other parasites, however, can cause potentially serious infections.

The parasitic infection best known to parents is pinworms, but others include malaria, tapeworms, hookworms, and trichinosis. Some antibacterials also work against parasites. Metronidazole can block the reproduction cycle of some parasites as well as some bacteria. There are some antiparasitic drugs that are only available directly from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), and your doctor must specifically request them from the CDC.

Resistance is increasingly becoming a problem with some antiparasitic medicines. For example, some drugs used to treat malaria are not as effective as they were in the past because of resistance. As a result, new antimalaria drugs are now in development and being studied in clinical trials.

There are common myths that certain parasitic diseases are caused by poor hygiene and can only be prevented or treated by improving personal cleanliness. These are only myths. Medicines are available to treat parasitic infections. Your child’s cleanliness is not going to cure the infection. However, as with many other infectious diseases, including some parasitic illnesses, hand washing is important and a good way to avoid germs that can make your child sick.

Author Margaret C. Fisher, MD, FAAP

Flu News -- Straight Facts about H1N1 and the 2010-11 Flu Season

Flu News -- Straight Facts about H1N1 and the 2010-11 Flu Season

Last year’s outbreak of the pandemic H1N1influenza — often called “swine flu” — made the last flu season more complicated, and more worrisome than usual. As this year’s flu season rolls around, many questions linger. Is H1N1 still a threat? Do I still need two flu vaccinations? Who exactly should get the flu shot this season? The American Lung Association is here to help, and has answers to help you, and your loved ones avoid the flu this year.

Why should I get vaccinated against the flu?
Influenza is a serious illness, which can kill up to 49,000 across the U.S., during a severe flu season. A flu vaccination is the best protection against the flu. Getting vaccinated not only protects you, but it helps keep you from spreading the flu to others.

What about H1N1 flu?
The 2009 H1N1 influenza virus is no longer at pandemic status and has become one of several flu strains that will be circulating this flu season. This year’s flu vaccine will include protection against H1N1.

Last year I needed two flu vaccines. Will I need two this year?
No. Because the H1N1 virus is included in this year’s flu vaccine, you will only need one vaccination this year to be protected.

Who should get vaccinated this year?
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention has recently recommended that everyone six-months of age and older get vaccinated. The fact that healthy adults were hardest hit by 2009 H1N1 virus prompted the CDC to broaden the “at risk” group to everyone over six-months old. This new “universal” recommendation reinforces the fact that the flu is serious and that vaccination is your best protection.

Can you get the flu from the flu shot?

No. The viruses in inactivated influenza vaccine have been killed, so you cannot get influenza from the vaccine. The vaccine is very safe. Rarely an allergic reaction may occur; especially in people who are allergic to eggs in which the virus is grown. Serious problems from influenza vaccine are very rare. The most typical side effect is soreness, redness, or swelling where the shot was given.

Is the flu vaccine safe for children?

Children typically experience the highest rates of influenza infection each year. Influenza vaccines have been found to be both safe and effective for children.

Is the flu vaccine effective for older adults?

Adults 65 years of age and older are among the hardest hit by influenza. Annual vaccination remains the best protection. But, as people age, their immune function tends to decrease, which makes older adults not only more susceptible to infections, but also less responsive to vaccination. However, the FDA has recently licensed a new higher dose vaccine for people 65 and older. You can learn more here.

Where can people go to get vaccinated?

There are several different places where people can go to get vaccinated against influenza. The first step is to ask your healthcare provider about influenza vaccination. You can also contact you local public health department or use the Flu Vaccine Finder to find a vaccination provider near you.

Miracle’ Treatment Turns into Potent Bleach Search Consumer Updates

Miracle’ Treatment Turns into Potent Bleach
Search Consumer Updates

Consumers are being warned not to drink a product sold on the Internet as a medical treatment after some users got sick after drinking it—including one person who had a life threatening reaction.

The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) says the product—known as Miracle Mineral Solution, Miracle Mineral Supplement, and MMS—becomes a potent chemical that’s used as a bleach when mixed according to package directions. The agency first warned consumers about the product in July, but federal regulators say it’s still available for sale on the Internet.

FDA says the product is sold by many independent distributors on several websites and through online auctions. Consumers should be alert when buying such an item on the Internet because the product’s labeling, colors, and logos may vary.

According to FDA experts, drinking the amount recommended on product labels can cause nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and symptoms of severe dehydration. Some labels claim vomiting and diarrhea are not uncommon after the product is ingested—and even maintain such reactions are evidence MMS is working.

FDA experts say MMS is dangerous, and they’re advising consumers to stop using the product immediately.
Dangerous Mixture

Distributor websites describe MMS as a liquid that’s 28 percent sodium chlorite in distilled water. Product directions tell consumers to mix the sodium chlorite solution with citric acid—such as, lemon or lime juice—or another acid before drinking. When the acid is added, the mixture becomes chlorine dioxide, a powerful bleaching agent, says FDA expert Charles Lee, M.D.

Lee says both chemicals are the active ingredients in disinfectants, and they have many other industrial uses.

Some distributors claim MMS mixed with citric acid is an antimicrobial, antiviral, and antibacterial liquid that is a remedy for colds, acne, cancer, HIV/AIDS, hepatitis, H1N1 flu, and other conditions. But FDA experts say they aren’t aware of any research that shows the product can effectively treat any illnesses.
Severe Reactions

FDA has received several reports of consumers who got sick from drinking the MMS and citrus juice mixture. The reports say consumers suffered from nausea, severe vomiting, and life-threatening low blood pressure caused by dehydration.

FDA officials are urging anyone who has had a negative reaction to consult a health care professional as soon as possible. Consumers and health care professionals should report negative side effects to FDA’s MedWatch program at 800-FDA-1088 or online at www.fda.gov/medwatch/report.htm.

This article appears on FDA's Consumer Health Information Web page, which features the latest on all FDA-regulated products.

Researchers pool data to search for genetic risks in heart disease

Researchers pool data to search for genetic risks in heart disease

American Heart Association Rapid Access Journal Report

                                                                     Study highlights:

An international consortium analyzing pooled data from all published whole-genome studies of heart attack and coronary artery disease (CAD) has found multiple genetic mutations, including one that increases heart attack risk by 29 percent.

The collective gene data could provide 10 times more subjects and controls than the largest CAD study to date.

DALLAS, Oct. 5, 2010 — In an unprecedented international project, researchers have found multiple genetic mutations that play a role in heart attack or coronary artery disease (CAD) risk.

The Coronary ARtery DIsease Genome-wide Replication And Meta-Analysis (CARDIoGRAM) — published in Circulation: Cardiovascular Genetics, an American Heart Association journal — consists of data from every published whole-genome study on genetic mutations in heart attack or CAD risk. Researchers are also pooling data from several unpublished genome-wide association studies to see if any new mutations can be uncovered.

The consortium will analyze the complete genetic profiles of more than 22,000 people of European descent with CAD or a heart attack history, and 60,000 healthy people — 10 times more than in the next largest whole-genome study to date.

Investigators have examined an average 2.2 million single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in each of the whole-genome studies included in the review. SNPs, or “snips,” are genetic variants at specific locations on individual chromosomes. Sometimes these variants manifest themselves as a disease or susceptibility to a disease. Modern technology allows hundreds of thousands of SNPs to be scanned in a person.

“Only a small proportion of the inheritability of CAD has been explained,” said Heribert Schunkert, M.D., a professor of medicine at the University of Lübeck in Germany and a spokesman for CARDIoGRAM. “We have to accept that almost all persons of European ancestry carry multiple small genetic defects that mediate some coronary artery disease risk. The main aim of the consortium is to identify new disease mechanisms to improve risk prevention.”

The task is challenging because of the complex nature of atherosclerosis, with multiple genetic factors contributing in small ways to the disease, he said.

Genome-wide association studies provide an unprecedented sensitivity to detect genetic variants affecting disease risk, and researchers rely on the studies’ sample size. However, in a typical genome-wide association study with about 1,000 patients and controls, the power to detect a SNP with a significant effect is low.

“Collectively, our consortium increases the power of these findings 10-fold,” Schunkert said. “By pooling all of the published and unpublished data, we hope to make discoveries that might have been overlooked. Given that up to 2.5 million comparisons are carried out, in parallel, for each whole-genome scan, distinguishing between true and false associations has been difficult.”

The data will be maintained in a central database, and each SNP that appears related to heart disease will be subjected to replication studies to confirm its significance. Numerous SNPs and the proteins they express increase risk of CAD or heart attack. But it’s unknown whether they’re acting alone or with other genetic variables, Schunkert said.

Pacemakers and Implantable Defibrillators

Pacemakers and Implantable Defibrillators

An arrhythmia is any disorder of your heart rate or rhythm. It means that your heart beats too quickly, too slowly or with an irregular pattern. Most arrhythmias result from problems in the electrical system of the heart. If your arrhythmia is serious, you may need one of two devices implanted under your skin: a cardiac pacemaker or an implantable cardioverter defibrillator (ICD).

A pacemaker monitors the electrical impulses in the heart. When needed, it delivers electrical pulses to make the heart beat in a more normal rhythm. A pacemaker may be helpful when the heart beats too slowly or has other abnormal rhythms. An ICD is a device that monitors heart rhythms. If it senses dangerous rhythms, it delivers shocks. Many ICDs record the heart's electrical patterns when there is an abnormal heartbeat. This can help the doctor plan future treatment.

Disease and Immune System-Related Gene.)

Researchers Explore Gene-Caffeine Interaction in Parkinson’s Disease

For release: Wednesday, September 29, 2010

New research suggests that the genetic makeup of people with Parkinson’s disease may determine how they respond to caffeine, which is generally associated with a lower risk of the disease. The findings, reported today at the World Parkinson Congress (WPC) in Glasgow, Scotland, come from one of the first genome wide association studies (GWAS) to look at genetic and environmental interactions.

The investigators scanned the complete genetic code (genome) of 4,000 people, about half of whom had Parkinson’s disease, for nearly 1 million markers. They then collected data on the amount of caffeinated coffee the subjects drank over their lifetimes.

Previous studies have shown that caffeinated coffee and tea may decrease the risk of developing Parkinson’s. Preliminary findings from this new study suggest that subjects who carry a version of the gene GRIN2A benefited the most from coffee.

The new findings may help researchers identify patients who are likely to respond to drugs that target the same physiological pathways as caffeine. Such drugs are currently being investigated as new treatments for Parkinson’s.

“This work shows the potential of using genetic and epidemiological approaches to identify new risk factors for Parkinson’s disease,” said Dr. Margaret Sutherland, a program director at the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS). “The next challenge will be to validate that the coffee and GRIN2A association can be replicated in a larger group of patients.”

Dr. Kieran Breen, director of Research and Development at Parkinson’s UK, said: “We are excited by these initial findings. However, more work needs to be done to expand and better understand this study so that in the future we may be better able to target drugs to specific people with Parkinson’s. But for today, patients should not change their caffeine consumption.”

Researchers are hopeful that new drugs, without caffeine’s stimulant and diuretic effects, will prove helpful to patients. In clinical trials, however, such drugs have failed to meet the threshold for effectiveness and regulatory approval.

“The new results suggest the possibility of screening patients for their genetic makeup to determine if they are likely to benefit from drugs that target the brain cells affected by caffeine. Such screening could be done at the outset of clinical trials, and could also become part of routine practice,” said the lead researcher Dr. Haydeh Payami, an investigator at the New York State Department of Health Wadsworth Center in Albany. Her work was funded in part by NINDS, a part of the U.S. National Institutes of Health, and by the Michael J. Fox Foundation for Parkinson’s Research Edmond J. Safra Global Genetics Consortia initiative. (For more research by Dr. Payami, see Researchers Find Connection between Parkinson’s Disease and Immune System-Related Gene.)

Parkinson’s disease attacks parts of the brain that are needed to control movement. Common symptoms include involuntary shaking, slow movement, stiff muscles and impaired balance, all which worsen as the disease progresses. A drug called L-dopa can control symptoms, but causes troubling side effects and does not slow progression of the disease.

Dr. Ted Dawson, chair of the program committee at the WPC said: “It is truly significant that these preliminary findings were announced at the World Parkinson Congress, a unique international, interdisciplinary forum designed to showcase the latest developments in the world of Parkinson's disease, featuring a network of scientists, clinicians, patients, caregivers and allied health professionals from 66 countries.”

African-Americans with high blood pressure need treatment sooner, more aggressively, according to international medical group

African-Americans with high blood pressure need treatment sooner, more aggressively, according to international medical group

American Heart Association Rapid Access Journal Report

Study highlights:

An international medical group recommends African-Americans be treated for blood pressure at lower threshold levels than the general population.

The International Society of Hypertension in Blacks’ consensus statement also suggests doctors should move from single drug therapy to combinations of up to four drugs to keep blood pressure comfortably below target levels more quickly.

DALLAS, Oct. 4, 2010 – According to a consensus statement by the International Society on Hypertension in Blacks (ISHIB), high blood pressure in African-Americans is such a serious health problem that treatment should start sooner and be more aggressive. The ISHIB statement is published in Hypertension: Journal of the American Heart Association.

Complications related to high blood pressure such as stroke, heart failure and kidney damage occur much more frequently in African-Americans compared with whites.

“Evidence from several recently completed studies converged to convince our committee that we were waiting a little bit too long to start treating hypertension in African-Americans,” said John M. Flack, M.D., M.P.H., lead author and chairman of the Department of Internal Medicine at Wayne State University in Detroit.

The update to the ISHIB’s 2003 consensus statement makes two major recommendations: First, the thresholds at which African-American patients begin treatment should be lowered. Second, doctors should move quickly from single-drug therapy to multi-drug therapy to keep a patient’s blood pressure comfortably below the thresholds.

“We believe that these recommendations will lead to better blood pressure control, and a better outlook for African-Americans with high blood pressure,” Flack said.

Blood pressure is reported as two numbers, measured in millimeters of mercury (mm Hg). The top number represents the pressure in the arteries when the heart beats and the lower number reflects the pressure when the heart relaxes between beats.

Blood pressure below 120/80 is considered normal for healthy U.S. adults. However, the ISHIB proposes that doctors recommend lifestyle changes to lower blood pressure in otherwise healthy African-Americans with blood pressure at or above 115/75. Those changes include reduced dietary sodium (salt) and increased potassium from eating more fruits and vegetables, as well as losing weight if necessary, getting regular aerobic exercise and drinking in moderation, Flack said.

“Epidemiological data shows that 115/75 is the critical blood pressure number for adults, and every time that figure goes up by 20/10 the risk of cardiovascular disease essentially doubles. We think it makes perfect sense to start lifestyle changes at that lower threshold,” he said. “The natural history of blood pressure is that it continues to go up as a person ages. In fact, from the age of 50 and onward, Americans have a 90 percent chance of developing hypertension.”

Doctors currently begin drug therapy to reduce blood pressure in patients without a history of cardiovascular disease, diabetes or high blood pressure-related organ-damage when blood pressure is at or above 140/90. This is referred to as primary prevention. The ISHIB recommends tightening the primary prevention threshold to 135/85 for African-Americans.

In addition, the ISHIB recommends starting treatment earlier for African-Americans who have cardiovascular disease, diabetes, kidney disease or damage to target organs (the heart, brain, kidneys). This treatment, known as secondary prevention, should start when blood pressure is at or above 130/80, according to the ISHIB statement.

The ISHIB also recommends that doctors move swiftly from single-drug therapy to multi-drug therapy if one agent doesn’t lower the pressure.

“The majority of patients of any race, and certainly African-Americans, are going to need more than one drug to be consistently controlled below their goal,” Flack said. “The debate in the medical community over which single drug is best overwhelms the most pressing question: Which drugs work best together?”

Based on a review of recently completed studies, the ISHIB document provides doctors with step-by-step guidance on the best second, third and fourth drugs to add based on individual patient characteristics. The ISHIB statement provides charts with alternate multi-drug combinations so physicians have several options for keeping patients’ blood pressure under targets, Flack said.

Flack stressed that the ISHIB tried whenever possible to suggest cheaper generic drugs to keep cost from becoming a treatment barrier.

“These guidelines raise the question for addressing issues surrounding treatment strategies and goals for African-Americans with hypertension,” said Sidney C. Smith Jr., M.D., an American Heart Association spokesman and professor of medicine at the University of North Carolina School of Medicine in Chapel Hill, N.C. “Studies continue to accumulate that address ethnic, age and gender differences, as well as optimal therapies.”

A major comprehensive statement regarding hypertension is expected to be published by the National Institutes of Health (NIH) by late 2011, Smith said.

The American Heart Association participates as a member organization in the NIH Report of the Joint National Committee on Prevention, Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure (JNC) guidelines.

FDA orders halt to marketing of unapproved single-ingredient oral colchicine Drug commonly used to prevent gout, treat gout flares, and treat Familial Mediterranean Fever (FMF)

FDA orders halt to marketing of unapproved single-ingredient oral colchicine
Drug commonly used to prevent gout, treat gout flares, and treat Familial Mediterranean Fever (FMF)

The U.S. Food and Drug Administration today took action against companies that manufacture, distribute, and/or market unapproved single-ingredient oral colchicine, a medication commonly used for the daily prevention of gout, to treat acute gout flare-ups, and for the treatment of Familial Mediterranean Fever (FMF).

The companies are expected to stop manufacturing single-ingredient oral colchicine within 45 days and must stop shipping this unapproved product in interstate commerce within 90 days. A small amount of unapproved colchicine is expected to be available after these dates until supplies are exhausted.

Many single ingredient oral colchicine products have been used by the medical community for decades. These and a variety of other medications have not received the mandatory modern-day FDA-approval required of all prescription drugs.

Colcrys is the only FDA-approved single-ingredient oral colchicine product available on the U.S. market. Approved by the FDA in 2009, Colcrys’ prescribing information contains important safety data and recommendations on drug interactions and dosing not available with unapproved products.

The manufacturer of Colcrys, Mutual Pharmaceutical/URL Pharma, has established a Patient Assistance Program (PAP) and a Co-Pay Assistance Program (CAP) to ensure that all patients will be able to continue affordable access to colchicine. The company also has informed FDA that it will maintain the programs at a minimum until there is FDA-approved generic competition for Colcrys. The PAP covers three groups of people: those with insurance; those without insurance; and Medicare beneficiaries enrolled in Part D who do not want the cost of Colcrys to contribute toward their true out-of-pocket expenditures under Part D. The CAP helps eligible patients reduce their Colcrys prescription co-pay to no more than $25 per prescription. Specific information on these programs can be found at www.colcrys.com, www.needymeds.org, or by calling 1-888-811-8423.

Today’s action is part of the FDA's broader initiative against marketed unapproved drugs, announced in a June 2006 Compliance Policy Guide describing the agency’s risk-based enforcement approach for marketed unapproved drug products.

“The need for drugs to go through the FDA approval process is clearly demonstrated by our review of oral colchicine tablets,” said Janet Woodcock, M.D., director of FDA’s Center for Drug Evaluation and Research (CDER). “Without our safety review and proper drug labeling, the old standard of care would likely have continued, to the detriment of patients.”

Unapproved versions of colchicine are not generic drugs. Generic drugs are approved by the FDA to assure that the approved generic drug products meet the same standards as the innovator drug. All single-ingredient oral colchicine products, other than Colcrys, that are currently being marketed are unapproved drugs and have never been evaluated by the agency.

“It is a priority for the FDA to get unapproved medications, such as older versions of single ingredient oral colchicine, either updated to conform to FDA’s current approval standards or off the market," said Deborah M. Autor, director of CDER’s Office of Compliance. “The FDA remains committed to ensuring that prescription drugs have the necessary FDA approval. We encourage companies to actively pursue approval or face the type of action announced today.”

The FDA previously took action against unapproved colchicine for injection products on Feb. 6, 2008. This ongoing initiative is designed to bring all unapproved medications, including single-ingredient oral colchicine, up to modern-day safety, efficacy, labeling, and quality standards by ensuring that they comply with FDA approval requirements. The FDA is committed to working with companies to ensure that marketed drugs are safe and effective, and meet appropriate standards for manufacturing and labeling.